Breathing Unequally: Impact of Air Pollution on Women

Seema, a householder worker, lives in a one-room dwelling where she shoulders the responsibility of five lives – three young children, a paralyzed father-in-law, and an unemployed husband. Every day, she walks approximately four kilometers to drop her children at school before heading to the house where she works. "In winter, it feels smoky everywhere (referring to smog). My eyes burn and I find it difficult to breathe," Seema confesses. Between earning a living and fretting over her children's interrupted education during extreme winters, Seema has little space to contemplate how the polluted air is affecting her own body.

In 2019, air pollution led to 6.7 million deaths globally, and 1.67 million in India. Air pollution is India’s second-largest health risk after maternal and child malnutrition and pollutants like PM2.5 have also been associated with carcinogenicity. Francoise d'Eaubonne’s concept of Ecofeminism recognizes that environmental degradation and women's oppression are intertwined, creating a double burden for women like Seema.

The Gendered Burden of Air Pollution

Traditional gender roles and domestic liabilities significantly increase women's susceptibility to indoor pollutants. In India, for example, women spend substantially more time than men on household activities like cooking and cleaning. The 2019 Time Use Survey reveals that rural women dedicate an average of 207 minutes daily to food preparation (compared to 97 minutes for rural men), while urban women spend 199 minutes (versus 88 minutes for urban men). Spending long hours in kitchens using biomass, firewood or coal exposes women to indoor air pollution, increasing their risk of respiratory illnesses and other health issues.

Mobility patterns may also increase women's exposure to outdoor air pollution. A World Bank report found that 45.4% of women in India walk to work compared to 27.4% of men, and 84% of their trips are by public, intermediate public, and non-motorized modes of transport. Many low-income women become involuntary pedestrians, walking long distances not by choice but due to the lack of affordable and reliable transport options. Their travel often extends beyond commuting to work due to mobility of care. They juggle household responsibilities such as escorting children to school, collecting water or running errands, increasing their exposure to ambient pollution. Ironically, women from low-income communities depend more on low-cost, non-motorized transport options that hardly contribute to pollution but directly expose users to polluted air. Enclosed transport options such as buses, cars or metro systems can protect users from direct exposure but are often too expensive or unsuitable for women’s trip patterns.

Economic and political factors further compound women's vulnerability to air pollution. Women are frequently employed in various high-exposure, low-wage jobs such as waste collection, construction, street cleaning and brick kiln processes, that lack proper safety measures, placing them in direct contact with airborne toxins. Meanwhile, limited female representation in local governance further causes gender to be overlooked in air quality policy initiatives. Together, these challenges intensify the risks that women already face through prolonged exposure in their daily lives.

The Unseen Cost of Air Pollution for Women

Air pollution exacts a profound and often unnoticed toll on women's health, especially as they face exposure from both indoor and outdoor sources. These impacts are not limited to women, as fine particulate matter can cross the placental barrier, contributing to silent miscarriages, stunted fetal growth, premature birth, stillbirth and low birth weight in newborns. In fact, air pollution was associated with 29% of miscarriages in women across South Asia, including India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, from 2000 to 2016. Exposure to air pollution in pregnant women can also lead to increased risk of common complications, such as preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, high blood pressure, and even depression. When combined with their higher exposure to air pollution, these impacts comprise a pressing health crisis which require targeted policies.

Transformative Action Through a Gender-Sensitive Lens

Lata, another household worker in Delhi, says, "I didn't even know about air pollution. Even though I know now, I have no choice but to face the city's toxic air.” Her words encapsulate a pertinent truth – awareness can do little to protect women in lower-income groups who are compelled to prioritize survival over safety.

The path forward demands a transformative approach that weaves together awareness, policy and action through a socioeconomic, gender-sensitive lens. Policymakers and stakeholders must recognize women's distinct challenges when designing environmental programs. Empowering women with knowledge and resources can transform them from passive victims to active agents of change.

Policy interventions like the PM Ujjwala Yojana for clean cooking fuel are a step in the right direction; however, challenges remain in ensuring deeper penetration in rural areas. Expanding affordability and access, promoting behavioral change, and exploring alternative clean energy solutions such as improved electric or solar-powered stoves can further reduce household air pollution. Safe, affordable public transport, last-mile connectivity and women-only transit options can reduce their exposure to vehicular pollution while lowering reliance on high-emission transport. Occupational exposure, especially for women in high-risk sectors, needs urgent action through stricter air quality and safety regulations, provision of protective gear, and emission control measures.

Ultimately, addressing air pollution's disproportionate impact on women requires an understanding of the interactions between social roles, economic realities and political representation. Acknowledging these intersections and crafting solutions that see air quality as a social and environmental imperative can ensure that the fundamental right to clean air is a reality for Seema, Lata and everyone else.

*The names have been changed to protect the privacy of workers.